Avena Sp. - Oats

• Family: Grasses - Poaceae
• Seed Straw, Fumigant, Furfural Tonic, Poultice

Stem: erect, 1-6, ± glabrous.
Leaf: basal and cauline; ligule 2-5 mm, membranous, rounded at tip; blade flat.
Inflorescence: panicle-like, open.
Spikelet: 15-50 mm, laterally compressed, generally stalked, ± pendent; glumes unequal or ± equal, generally > florets, membranous, 3-11-veined, generally glabrous; axis occasionally prolonged behind upper floret, vestigial floret at tip; florets (1)2-6(8), 2+ bisexual, reduced florets distal to proximal ones, breaking above glumes and between florets or not; lemma hard, glabrous to hairy below awn, awned at or slightly below middle, 5-9-veined, tip 2-forked, forks ± tooth-like, awn stiff, generally bent, slightly to often strongly coiled below bend; palea ± < lemma; anthers 3.
Fruit: cylindric, longitudinally grooved, pubescent.
29 species: temperate Europe, northern Africa, central Asia. (Latin: oats) [Baum 2007 FNANM 24:734-739] Cult for grain, hay. California records of Avena strigosa Schreb. are based on misidentifications of Avena barbata. California records of Avena occidentalis Durieu, are based on a misidentification of Avena fatua.^[Jepson]

Local Species;

1. Avena fatua - Wild Oat ^{[PCBC][E-flora]}
2. Avena sativa - Common Oat ^{[PCBC][E-flora]}

Identification
1. Callus glabrous; florets remaining attached at maturity; lemma glabrous or nearly so, awn of lower floret generally 0(15) mm ..... Avena sativa
1' Callus bearded; florets falling singly or as a unit at maturity; lemma densely strigose or soft hairy, especially below, awned

2' Lemma tip ragged or 2-forked, teeth <= 1.5 mm

3. Florets falling separately from glumes; awn of lowest floret 25-40 mm; leaf margin glabrous ..... Avena fatua ^[Jepson]

 

Immature Oat Seed
"One of the safest and most popular nervines is Avena spp. (oat) immature or milky seed, a Poaceae family member native to Asia and now spread globally in temperate climates. The seed is very distinct from the largely lifeless oat straw or stem. Immature oat seed is prescribed for acute and chronic anxiety, stress and excitation, neurasthenic and pseudoneurasthenic syndromes, skin diseases, connective tissue deficiencies, and weakness of the bladder, and as a tonic and roborant. The German Commission E, however, concluded that its effectiveness for these conditions had not been established.⁹ The Eclectics considered tincture of oat seed to be a mild stimulant and nerve tonic, and many Eclectics considered it of some importance for nervous debility and for affections bordering closely upon ner vous prostration. It was deemed useful for headaches from exhaustion or overwork or the ner vous headache of menstruation. But they cautioned that it was not a remedy of great power and would not always be useful. They did not consider its use in morphine addiction to be substantiated.¹⁰
Many Western herbalists prefer to use oat seed tincture as a simple to quiet temporary, mild anxiety or to take the edge off moods that might otherwise express themselves as angry outbursts or loss of self- control. We have also used it in pet dogs to calm and avert seizures. Oat seed tincture is frequently included as an ingredient in formulas intended to help patients quit cigarette smoking. This aspect of oats has been the subject of some research, mostly with negative results.^11,12 These results mirror the conclusion of the Eclectics: oat seed is not strong enough to have a substantial effect on serious addictions like cigarette smoking, although its calming effect may be somewhat helpful as a component of a treatment for these addictions. It is, however, safe for use in essentially anyone, with no known contraindications (except that some patients with celiac disease cannot tolerate it), adverse effects, or interactions." ^[CBMed]

Phytochemicals

"Oats (Avena spp.) synthesize a family of four related antifungal triterpenoid saponins, avenacins A-1, B-1, A-2 and B-2, that accumulate in the roots [18,19]. The major oat root saponin avenacin A-I (Fig. I) is localized in the root epidermis [20], and is likely to present a protective barrier to infection of oats by saponin-sensitive fungi." ^{[Oleszek, SIF]}

Other (non-local) Species

"Four minor cultivated species derived from wild forms of Avena strigosa grow in the western Mediterranean. Bristle oat, A. strigosa, is a fodder plant in central and northern Europe, still grown Grains in the Shetland Islands but almost extinct. A. brevis and A. hispanica are now very rare crops of southwest Europe. A. nuda is a naked form of oat that threshes free of the tough husk. It has low yields and is not widely cultivated." ^{[Prance TCHP]}

Wild Oat - Avena fatua

Family: Grasses- Poaceae Family

[IFBC-E-flora]

[E-flora]2013 Habitat / Range Dry to mesic fields and waste areas in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; infrequent in S BC; introduced from Eurasia. [IFBC-E-flora] Range: "Wild Oat, Avena fatua, a native of Europe, now found in fields and waste places in the Middle West and especially abundant on the Pacific Coast" [EWP] USDA Flower Colour: Yellow USDA Blooming Period: Mid Spring USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics: Colour: Brown Present over the Spring [USDA-E-flora]

Identification

Synonyms

• Avena fatua var. glabrata Peterm. ^[E-flora]
• Avena fatua var. vilis (Wallr.) Hausskn. ^[E-flora]
• Avena hybrida Peterm. ex Reichenb. p.p. ^[E-flora]

General: Annual grass from fibrous roots; stems hollow, up to 80 cm tall. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Leaves: Sheaths open; blades 3-10 (15) mm wide, rough and often more or less soft-hairy; ligules (1) 3-6 mm long, membranous, short-hairy, rounded to pointed, the margins jagged and fringed with small hairs. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}
Flowers: Inflorescence a large, open panicle, the branches pendulous; spikelets usually with 3 florets, in addition to the rudiments tipping the prolonged rachilla, the lower 2 florets with much twisted, strongly bent awns up to 4 cm long; glumes 20-25 mm long, more or less equal, both usually surpassing the florets; lemmas hardened at the base, the nerves obscure, usually stiff-hairy or nearly smooth, the upper portions greenish and plainly ribbed, the tips thin and membranous and sharply bilobed for about 1 mm, the calluses densely bearded; rachilla readily disarticulating between the florets, strongly bearded or sometimes nearly smooth; anthers 4-5 mm long; lodicules nearly 2 mm long. ^{[IFBC-E-flora]}

Edible Uses

• Seeds: Wild oats were often used by the Indians.^[Harrington]
  • Harvesting: The seed ripens in the latter half of summer and, when harvested and dried, can store for several years. ^[PFAF] "The grains resemble those of the common oats but have stiff hairs. The Indians singe these off and then crush the seeds to flour." ^[EWP]
  • Preparation: Cooked[2, 46, 61, 85, 95, 161]. ^[PFAF] The grains resemble those of the common oats but have stiff hairs. The Indians singe these off and then crush the seeds to flour. ^[EWP] They shattered them into baskets, then singed off the long hairs on the bracts by putting in some live coals and shaking the mixture. This got rid of the hairs, and incidently parched the grains to some extent. Then the grains could be ground into a meal or crushed to form a kind of rolled oats, in fact, used in the same way as we use cultivated oats. The real grain is enclosed in chaffy bracts which can be ground up in the process, or perhaps winnowed out in a breeze.The wild oat grain is relatively large in comparison with that of most of our wild grasses, and this is an advantage. ^[Harrington] "It has a floury texture and a mild, somewhat creamy flavour. It can be used as a staple food crop in either savoury or sweet dishes. The seed can be cooked whole, though it is more commonly ground into a flour and used as a cereal in all the ways that oats are used, especially as a porridge but also to make biscuits, sourdough bread etc. The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw or cooked in salads, stews etc.[183]." ^[PFAF] The grains resemble those of the common oats but have stiff hairs. The Indians singe these off and then crush the seeds to flour. ^[EWP]
• Coffee: The roasted seed is a coffee substitute. ^[PFAF]
  

Other Uses

• Straw: "The straw has a wide range of uses such as for bio-mass, fibre, mulch, paper-making and thatching[171]." ^[PFAF] "Some caution is advised in its use as a mulch since oat straw can infest strawberries with stem and bulb eelworm." ^[PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

• Seed: "Diuretic, emollient and refrigerant[240]." ^[PFAF]

Cultivation

• "Succeeds in any moderately fertile soil in full sun[200]. Prefers a poor dry soil[134]. Tolerates a pH in the range 4.5 to 6.5. A parent of the cultivated oat, A. sativa[57, 171] but the seeds are somewhat smaller and yields lower. This species could be of importance in breeding programmes for the cultivated oats (A. sativa), where it could confer drought tolerance, disease resistance and higher yields. Oats are in general easily grown plants but, especially when grown on a small scale, the seed is often completely eaten out by birds. Some sort of netting seems to be the best answer on a garden scale." ^[PFAF]
• Alleleopathy: "Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. caused inhibition of Avena fatua and amaryllis (Hippeastrum hubridum Hort.) in Egypt (El-Rokiek and Eid 2009)." ^{[Dighton IIS]}
• Oil Profile (as a source of PUFAs): "Poaceae species (Avena fatua) shows also a high percentage of OA on total FAs; however, the low amount of FAs on total seed reported makes it impossible to consider this species as a source of n-9 FAs." ^{[Tardio MWEP]}

Propagation

• Seed - sow in situ in early spring or in the autumn. Only just cover the seed. Germination should take place within 2 weeks.^[PFAF]

Common Oat - Avena sativa

Family: Grasses - Poaceae Family

[IFBC-E-flora]

[E-flora]2013 Habitat / Range Dry to mesic fields, roadsides, railways and waste areas in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; infrequent in S BC; introduced from Eurasia. [IFBC-E-flora] Synonyms A. dispermis, A. distans, A. cinerea, A. anglica, A. algeriensis. [PFAF][E-flora] General: Annual grass from fibrous roots; stems hollow, up to 100 cm tall. [IFBC-E-flora] Leaves: Sheaths open; blades flat; ligules 2-4 mm long, membranous, short-hairy, rounded, the margins finely jagged and fringed with small hairs. [IFBC-E-flora] Flowers: Inflorescence a large, open panicle, the branches pendulous; spikelets usually with 2 or sometimes, 3 florets; glumes 20-25 mm long, about equal, both usually surpassing the florets; lemmas lanceolate, the lower lemmas with awns arising just above the middle, the awns straight to slightly twisted or curved, up to 15 mm longer than the lemmas, the upper lemma awnless; lemmas much hardened and smooth to above midlength, the upper portions thickened, greenish and prominently ribbed, entire or very shallowly bilobed at the tips, the calluses smooth or sparsely bearded; rachillas not readily disarticulating between the florets, smooth or sparsely stiff-hairy, firm; anthers 3-4 mm long; lodicules linear, about 1.8 mm long. [IFBC-E-flora] USDA Flower Colour: Yellow USDA Blooming Period: Late Spring USDA Fruit/Seed characteristics: Colour: Brown Present over the Summer [USDA-E-flora]

Hazards

• "Contraindications, Interactions, and Side Effects (Oats) - Class 1 (AHP). None known (KOM; concerning straw only). “Hazards and/or side effects not known for proper therapeutic dosages” (PH2). Like most cereals (rice excluded), oats might be avoided by celiacs (gluten sensitivity) (SKY). Recent new data suggest that oats maybe are okay for celiacs...." ^{[HMH Duke]}

Edible Uses

• Grains: "It has a floury texture and a mild, somewhat creamy flavour. It can be used as a staple food crop in either savoury or sweet dishes. The seed can be cooked whole, though it is more commonly ground into a flour and used as a cereal in all the ways that oats are used, especially as a porridge but also to make biscuits, sourdough bread etc. The seed can also be sprouted and eaten raw or cooked in salads, stews etc.[183]." ^[PFAF]
  • Harvesting: "The seed ripens in the latter half of summer and, when harvested and dried, can store for several years." ^[PFAF] The grain is high in carbohydrate and contains more protein than other cereals (up to almost 20%) and 5-9% of highly unsaturated fat. It is a source of calcium, iron, vitamin B1 and nicotinic acid. ^{[GF Winch]} "Oats are harvested when grain is in the hard dough stage and straw is slightly green (when the moisture content of the grain is 14% or less). If too ripe, shattering causes seed loss. Crop is usually cut with binder and left in the field until dry and then threshed. In mechanized societies, oats are combined directly from standing grain. For this type of harvesting, crop must be fully ripe, usually when the straw has lost greenness and glumes have become white. Crop may be combined from windrow, or cut with a header harvester when the crop is dead ripe. Seeds are threshed and cleaned by winnowing, and artificially dried to below 14% moisture for storage [269]." ^[PFAF] "Kashaya Pomo women watched for the first warm inland winds of summer as a sign that there would be only a few days to gather the seeds of wild oats (Avena spp.) before they fell to the ground." ^{[Anderson TTW]}
  • Preparation: Cooked[2, 34, 46, 177]. ^[PFAF] "It is fairly low in gluten, and so is not really suitable for making bread[269]. The seed is an especially good food for convalescents and people with stomach problems[13]. Oat flour produced in the dry-milling operation currently is used as an antioxidant in food products[269]. Oat flour inhibits rancidity and increases the length of shelf-stability of fatty foods such as vegetable oils[269]. Whilst cultivated oats average about 17% protein, scientists screening thousands of samples of cultivated and wild species found that the wild species averaged 27% with some forms ranging up to 37%[269]. Oats are also one of the cereals used as a basic ingredient for making whisky[7]." ^[PFAF]
• Coffee: "Coffee [177, 183]." ^[PFAF]
• Oil: "An edible oil is obtained from the seed, it is used in the manufacture of breakfast cereals[61]." ^[PFAF]
  
  

Other Uses

• Fumigant: "The seeds were burned for fumigants that were used in Hungary to keep insects away from houses and animals (Vajkai 1943)"^[UAPDS]
• Straw: "[74, 141, 171]. It has also been used as a stuffing material for mattresses and these are said to be of great benefit for sufferers from rheumatism[7, 254]. Some caution is advised in its use as a mulch since oat straw can infest strawberries with stem and bulb eelworm." ^[PFAF] The straw is highly absorbent, and so is good for bedding. ^{[GF Winch]}
• Furfural: "Oat hulls are basic in production of furfural, a chemical intermediate in the production of many industrial products such as nylon, lubricating oils, butadiene, phenolic resin glues, and rubber tread compositions[269]. Oats hulls supply about 22% of the required furfural raw materials. Rice hulls, corn cobs, bagasse, and beech woods make up much of the remainder[269]." ^[PFAF]
• Oat Halls: "Used in the manufacture of construction boards, cellulose pulp and as a filter in breweries[269]. A handful of the grains, thrown into the bath water, will help to keep the skin soft because of their emollient action[7]. An extract of oat straw prevents feeding by the striped cucumber beetle[269]." ^[PFAF]
• Fodder: "The plants can make good hay and silage. ^{[GF Winch]}

Medicinal Uses

• Seed:
  • "The seed is a mealy nutritive herb that is antispasmodic, cardiac, diuretic, emollient, nervine and stimulant[4, 7, 21, 165]." ^[PFAF] "When consumed regularly, oat germ reduces blood cholesterol levels[238]. Whilst used mainly as a food, oat grain does also have medicinal properties[238]. In particular oats are a nutritious food that gently restores vigour after debilitating illnesses, helps lower cholesterol levels in the blood and also increases stamina[254]." ^[PFAF] "They also lower cholesterol (Onning et al., 1999) and help to relieve menopausal symptoms." ^{[Bascom IHM]}
  • Anti-tumor: "The seed contains the antitumor compound b-sitosterol and has been used as a folk remedy for tumours[269]." ^[PFAF]
  • Gruel: "A gruel made from the ground seed is used as a mild nutritious aliment in inflammatory cases, fevers and after parturition[4]. It should be avoided in cases of dyspepsia accompanied with acidity of the stomach[4]." ^[PFAF]
  • Tonic
    • "Avena sativa (oats) seeds (picked during the so- called milky stage) are one of the most highly reputed and gentle nerve tonics among the Eclectic physicians as well as Europe an herbalists.48 Oat seed also has a reputation, however poorly substantiated, for relieving depression and thus cravings in people attempting to break their addiction to nicotine. It might be somewhat surprising to think of various hypnotic herbs as being helpful for depression. Logically one might assume that an herb that induces sleep would only worsen depressed moods. However, many such herbs were used traditionally for melancholic patients." ^[CBMed]
  • Tincture: "A tincture of the ground seed in alcohol is useful as a nervine and uterine tonic[4]." ^[PFAF]
  • Decoction: "A decoction strained into a bath will help to soothe itchiness and eczema[254]." ^[PFAF]
  • Poultice: "A poultice made from the ground seeds is used in the treatment of eczema and dry skin[238]." ^[PFAF] " Oats are used externally for eczema, psoriasis, chickenpox, and shingles (herpes zoster)." ^{[Bascom IHM]}
    • Use in Scotland: "Oats are much used in domestic medicine, especially in Scotland, where oatmeal poultices serve for a number of complaints. For example, minor boils and suppurations are treated with an oatmeal poultice made with water and a slight dressing of salt butter. For “difficult” boils urine would take the place of butter (Beith). Oatmeal used to be reckoned good for colic, too, and there is a recipe for sore eyes from Scotland. A handful of oats would be put into a bowl of water, stirred, and left for a while. Then the mixture would be strained through a cloth, and the meal water put to the eyes (Beith, Parman). A bath prepared with about a pound of oat straw is prescribed for neuralgia (Thomson. 1978). There is even a wart charm using oats. You could cure your own warts by taking 81 (9 × 9, that is, a magical number) stems of oats (which are bumpy, like warts), binding them in 9 bundles of 9 each, and hiding them under a stone. As the stems rotted, so the warts would disappear (Beith, Parman). Freckles and spots can be washed away with a preparation of oatmeal boiled in vinegar (Addison. 1985)." ^{[DPL Watts]}
  • Dosages: "AVENA (A. sativa, A. fatua, Oats, Wild Oats.) UNRIPE FRESH SEED, w/"Milky" center. Fresh Tincture [1:2], 10-20 drops, to 4X a day. STRAW (dry but green stems). Standard Infusion, 4-8 ounces." ^{[Moore(1995)]}
• Plant
  • Parts Used: "Wild oat herb consists of the fresh aboveground parts of Avena sativa, which are harvested shortly before the height of the flowering season and then quickly dried. Oats consist of the ripe, dried fruits of Avena sativa. Oat bran is taken from the outer layer of the husked fruit. To make rolled oats, the husked fruit is treated with steam, then crushed. Oat straw consists of the dried, threshed leaves and stems of Avena sativa, also harvested shortly before the height of the flowering season." ^[PDR]
  • Dosages "(Oats) - 3 g oat bran soluble fiber/day (APA); 100 g oat bran/day for 3 weeks (sic) (SHT); 1 tbsp oats/cup water several ×/day (SKY); 3 g grass/0.25 liter, several ×/day or before retiring (BIS); 3 g herb/250 ml water (PH2); 100 g herb in bath (KOM; PH2); 1-2 tbsp fresh herb (PED); 2-3 g dry herb (PED); 2.5 g dry herb/cup boiling water (PED); 6-2 ml liquid seed extract (PNC); 0.5-1 dropper tincture or concentrated extract 2-3 ×/day (APA); 3-5 ml oat tincture 3 ×/day (SKY)." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Preparation: "To make a tea, 3 gm drug is boiled in 250 ml water, which is strained after cooling. Daily Dosage: The tea is taken repeatedly throughout the day and shortly before going to bed." ^[PDR]
  • Anti-addictive "A tincture of the plant has been used as a nerve stimulant and to treat opium addiction.[269]. An alcoholic extraction of oats has been reported to be a deterrent for smoking, though reports that oat extract helped correct the tobacco habit have been disproven[269]." ^[PFAF]
  • Women's complaints: "Oat grass tea is said to balance menstrual cycle and relieve dysmenorrhea, and is touted for osteoporosis and UTIs." ^{[HMH Duke]}
  • Dermatological Aid: "The German Commission E Monographs, a therapeutic guide to herbal medicine, approve Avena sativa for inflammation of the skin, warts (see [302] for critics of commission E)." ^[PFAF] "Oatstraw (dried, threshed leaf and stem of the oat plant) is approved by the German Commission E for “topical applications in herbal baths for inflammation and seborrheic skin diseases with pruritus” (Blumenthal et al., 2000)." ^{[Bascom IHM]}
    • "Oatmeal bath: 100 grams of oatstraw added to warm bath water (Blumenthal et al., 2000)." ^{[Bascom IHM]}
  • Homeopathic Use: "Oats are used in homeopathy for exhaustion and insomnia." ^[PDR]
    • Dosage: "5 to 10 drops, 1 tablet or 5 to 10 globules 1 to 3 times daily or 1 ml injection solution twice weekly sc (HAB1)." ^[PDR]
      

• Straw
  • Nerve tonic:" In an article riddled with errors, the Globe (February 28, 1984) reports that oat straw, usually taken as a tea, is a sexual nerve tonic[269]. Oat straw and the grain are prescribed to treat general debility and a wide range of nervous conditions[254]. They are mildly antidepressant, gently raising energy levels and supporting an over-stressed nervous system [254]. They are of particular value in helping a person to cope with the exhaustion that results from multiple sclerosis, chronic neurological pain and insomnia [254]. Oats are thought to stimulate sufficient nervous energy to help relieve insomnia [254]."^[PFAF]
    

Ethnobotany

European History: "Oats are descended from A. sterilis, a wild oat that spread as a weed of wheat and barley from the Fertile Crescent to Europe. In the wetter, colder conditions of Europe, in which oats thrive, it was domesticated about 3000 years ago, and soon became an important cereal in its own right on the cooler fringes of Europe. In medieval Britain oats were widely grown for bread, biscuits, and malting, but they now hold their importance only in the wetter parts of northern Europe. Oats are still an important food in Scotland, where uses include porridge, oatcakes, and the filling for haggis. Oats have also had an important role since the Roman period as feed for horses. British emigrants introduced oat cultivation to North America in the 17th century, but they have always been a minor cereal outside Europe. " ^{[Prance TCHP]}

Forms of Consumption

• "Oats are used in breakfast cereals and baked goods. Oat bran is high in soluble fiber, which can help lower blood cholesterol levels, thus possibly reducing the risk of heart attacks. It also helps the body utilize insulin more efficiently, an important asset in controlling diabetes. Products made with oats contain little or no gluten and can usually be tolerated by people with celiac disease." ^[PDBHM]
• Whole oats, "called groats, consist of the bran, germ, and endosperm of the whole grain with the outer hull removed. Whole oats are softer than wheat grains and can be crushed at home. They are available in specialty food stores. Rolled oats are the most common form of oats and are so called because the whole groats are steamed and then flattened between rollers before being made into flakes." ^[PDBHM]
• Rolled oats "are popularly called oatmeal. They are available in three thicknesses, and the thicker the flake, the longer the oats take to cook. Scotch or steel-cut oats are the thickest, and are sometimes called Scotch or Irish oatmeal. Table-cut or regular old-fashioned oats, sold in specialty stores, are nuttier and chewier than quick-cooking oats but are otherwise the same. Quick-cooking or instant oats are the thinnest flakes. Some people think they have a raw taste compared to other oats." ^[PDBHM]

Ethnomedicial

Activities

• Antifungal
  • Roots Methanolic extract - 5 mg/disk Inhibition zone of 6.1-9.6 mm VS. R. solani & F. oxysporum ^[Antifungal]
    • "Oats produce fungitoxins, including steroidal and triterpenoid saponins and phytoalexins which may play a role in their disease-resistance properties.40-43 The avenacins, triterpenoid saponins, are thought to account for the resistance of oats to G. graminis var. triciti.43- 45 Avenacins were initially isolated as general antimicrobials by Maizel et al.,46 and the complete structural characterization of the avenacins and their relationship to takeall disease was reported by Crombie’s group.43,44,47 Of the four structurally related avenacins, A-1 is the most fungitoxic and predominant avenacin produced by oats. Avenacins are produced in oat roots with highest concentrations in young root tips. Levels decline gradually from 12 µg/mg (1.2%) dry weight in 3-day-old roots to 0.005% in 77-day-old root tissue.48 No appreciable differences in avenacin content in root tissue were detected in a study of 30 oat varieties,49 although an oat species, Avena longiglumis (lacking detectable levels of avenacin and highly susceptible to G. graminis var. tritici), has been reported.38" ^{[Cutler BANPA]}
• Antioxidant
  • "In conclusion, phenolic-rich fractions of oats possess an antioxidant capacity that can be assessed quantitatively through their ability to inhibit LDL oxidation and protein oxidation. The greatest degree of antioxidant capacity was associated with compounds extracted with methanol from the aleurone. The identification of the oat constituents from these fractions should be investigated, although candidate compounds include caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and avenanthramides. These compounds may be bioavailable and contribute to the health effects associated with dietary antioxidants and oats." ^[PDBHM]

Nutritional

• "Oats have a high vitamin and mineral content that helps to relax the central nervous system." ^{[Bascom IHM]}
• "Oatbran, and to a lesser extent oatmeal, are rich sources of inositol, part of the vitamin B complex and important in nerve transmission, the metabolism and movement of fats and for reducing blood cholesterol levels. Inositol is also seeds and nuts, etc." ^{[GF Winch]}

^{[Turner&Kuhnlein]}

Phytochemicals

COMPOUNDS: OAT HERB

• Soluble oligo- and polysaccharides: including saccharose, kestose, neokestose, bifurcose, beta- glucans, galactoarabinoxylans ^[PDR]
• Silicic acid (partially water-soluble) ^[PDR]
• Steroid saponins: avenacoside A and B ^[PDR]
• Unusual amino acids: avenic acid A and B ^[PDR]
• Flavonoids: including vitexin-, isovitexin-, apigenin-, isoorientin-, tricinglycosides ^[PDR]
  

COMPOUNDS: OAT FRUIT

• Starch ^[PDR]
• Soluble polysaccharides: in particular beta-glucans and arabinoxylans ^[PDR]
• Proteic substances: including gliadin, avenin, avenalin ^[PDR]
• Peptides: alpjia-avenothionine, beta-avenothionine ^[PDR]
• Steroid saponinsT avenacoside A and B ^[PDR]
• Sterols: including beta-sitosterol, delta-5-avenasterol ^[PDR]
• Fatty oil ^[PDR]
• Vitamins of the B-group ^[PDR]
• Amines: including gramine ^[PDR]

COMPOUNDS: OAT STRAW

• Soluble oligo- and polysaccharides: including saccharose, kestose, neokestose, bifurcose, beta-glucans, galactoarabinoxylans
• Silicic acid (partially water-soluble) ^[PDR]
• Steroid saponins: avenacoside A and B ^[PDR]
• Unusual amino acids: avenic acid A and B ^[PDR]
• Flavonoids: including vitexin-, isovitexin-, apigenin-, isoorientin-, tricinglycosides ^[PDR]

Steroid Saponins

• "Avenacins, triterpenoid saponins from oats, may be important determinants of disease resistance and a source of pathogen-suppressive activity in soils. Analytical protocols developed to quantify avenacins were used to show intervarietal differences in production of these compounds, their location in the root zone, and their susceptibility to turnover." ^{[Cutler BANPA]}
• "Initial results using traditional methanol extractions of root material produced highly variable amounts of avenacins in replicated samples, although ranges were similar to those reported previously.44,48 A preliminary evaluation of these methanolic extracts by HPLC revealed a high level of mono-deglucosyl avenacin A-1 (mono-dG-A1), indicating that extensive hydrolysis was taking place, even under cold storage, possibly via endogenous glycosidase activity. Also, extracts were highly colored due in part to the presence of flavonoids and polyphenols." ^{[Cutler BANPA]}

Lipids
This grain seed contains 4 to 8% of lipid, though somewhat more in certain strains. The major component acids are palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid ... It is reported to show cholesterolemic and antithrombotic activity, and is used as an appetite suppressant in “Olibra”, used in cosmetics by virtue of its glycolipids, and can be used in baking, increasing loaf volume at levels as low as 0.5%.... The phytosterols have been detailed by Jiang and Wang (2005). ^{[CRC TLHB]}

Cultivation

"Oats are an easily grown crop that succeeds in any moderately fertile soil in full sun[200]. They prefer a poor dry soil[134] and tolerate cool moist conditions[13]. Plants are reported to tolerate an annual precipitation of 20 to 180cm, an average annual temperature range of 5 to 26^oC, and a pH of 4.5 to 8.6[269]. They thrive on a wide range of soils of ample, but not excessive, fertility[269]. Well-drained neutral soils in regions where annual rainfall is 77cm or more are best[269]. Loam soils are best, especially silt and clay loams[269]. The plants are also reported to tolerate aluminium, disease, frost, fungus, herbicides, hydrogen fluoride, mycobacterium, nematode, rust, SO2, smut, and virus[269]. Oats have a long history of cultivation as a food crop and are believed to be derived chiefly from two species, wild oat (A. fatua L.) and wild red oat (A. sterilis L.)[269]. They are widely cultivated for their seed, used as a source of protein, as well as for hay, as winter cover, and are used as a pasture crop in the growing or 'milk' stage[269]. Oats are long-day plants, grown in cool climates in the Old and New World temperate zones, succeeding under variable conditions[269]. Oats usually are not very winter hardy, although winter hardy cvs have been developed[269]. A very hardy plant according to another report, the cultivated oat succeeds as far north as latitude 70^on[142] and is widely cultivated in temperate zones for its edible seed, there are many named varieties[183]. Although lower yielding than wheat (Triticum spp.), it is able to withstand a wider range of climatic conditions and is therefore more cultivated in cooler and wetter areas[13]. Hot dry weather just before heading causes heads to blast and yields of seed to decrease[269]. Self-pollination is normal, but cross-pollination by wind also occurs[269]. If you wish to save the seed for sowing, each variety should be isolated about 180 metres away from other varieties[269]. Oats grow well with vetch but they inhibit the growth of apricot trees[18, 201]. Oats are in general easily grown plants but, especially when grown on a small scale, the seed is often completely eaten out by birds. Some sort of netting seems to be the best answer on a garden scale.^{" [PFAF]}

• Fodder: "In some cold regions the young plants of winter sown types are grazed in spring. If no top dressing is applied the grain yield may be reduced a little, though with crops which are too thick (“winter proud”) the yield is often increased by grazing." ^{[GF Winch]}

Cultivation in Peru

"...oats is a cultivated European grain that was not greatly accepted into the folk agriculture of the valley, even though yields in test plots prove that the valley has ecological conditions favorable for it. Near the limits of agriculture some estate owners raise forage oats (avena forrajera) to feed to their horses. Occasionally peasants cultivate oats on land ordinarily devoted to wheat or barley. The oats are dried on racks near their huts and the grain is used in soups and the stalks used as fodder. Perhaps because they are difficult to prepare for human consumption oats are only infrequently grown today in the valley, although since 1964, more land is devoted to this crop. The only oats that many people in Southern Peru know are American or Canadian rolled oats which are sold in tins in some of the larger towns, and 'Quaker' has become the nominal term for oats." ^{[Gade PMLP]}

Pathogens

"The most specialized and dangerous pathogen is G. graminis var. tritici, which causes take-all and whiteheads in wheat and barley crops; var. avenae can attack oat crops as well. The fungus infects the cereal root-system from inocula lying in the soil and by ectotrophic growth along the roots eventually reaches the crown, consisting of the attached tiller-bases with their crown roots. F. culmorum, Curvularia ramosa and Cochliobolus sativus form a group of unspecialized pathogens infecting both young roots and senescent roots, though they lack the ability for continuous, ectotrophic spread over the cereal root system that is possessed by G. graminis (Fig. 16, Ch. 9). They can cause seedling blight of cereals, but infection of older plants, which may be directly through the crown tissue from the surrounding soil, appears to be restricted to certain soil and environmental conditions that predispose the cereal plants to such infections." ^{[Garrett SFSF]}

GROWTH CONDITIONS

• Day length: long-day. ^{[GF Winch]}
• Growth period: "180-220 days. Harvest should be just before the seed is fully ripe; oats shatter easily, so a lot of seed can be lost on the ground." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Rainfall: "about 750 mm per year is the minimum. Irrigation is most effective at flowering." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Temperature: "oat plants can be damaged by frost in very cold winters. Hot dry weather before heading can cause seed loss.^{" [GF Winch]}
• Rotation: "oats can be suitable as a pioneer crop, the first crop sown after breaking in new land. Best after a root crop and not after another cereal, especially rye. They should not be grown on the same land for too many years as eelworms can build up. The plants are more prone to lodge if grown after a legume or if the soil has a high Nitrogen content." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Pests: "more resistant to insect attack than wheat or barley. Most problems are caused by: armyworms, grasshoppers, leaf hoppers, crickets, grain bugs and frit fly." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Diseases: "seed diseases include loose and covered smut, and stripe, all controlled by seed dressings. Foliar diseases include rusts, especially Puccinia spp., controlled with resistant varieties. Powdery Mildew (Erysiphe graminis) can also be a problem." ^{[GF Winch]}

Limitations

• "Very few, although other cereals normally produce higher income per hectare." ^{[GF Winch]}
• "Oats and oat products can rapidly turn rancid due to the presence of free fatty acids which produce a soapy taste due to the activity of an enzyme called lipase, though this can be rendered harmless by steam treatment." ^{[GF Winch]}
• "The seed shatters very readily when ripe." ^{[GF Winch]}
• "The seed:husk ratio is very low - the husk can weigh 25% of a grain sample. Also it can be more difficult to separate this husk (the “chaff”)from the grain than wheat and barley." ^{[GF Winch]}
• "Breeding of improved varieties of oats with wide adaptation has only had limited success" ^{[GF Winch]}

Propagation

• "Seed - sow in situ in early spring or in the autumn. Only just cover the seed. Germination should take place within 2 weeks." ^[PFAF]
  • Seed rate: "In the sub-tropics, 30-70 kg/ha on dryland, 50-80 kg/ha irrigated. In temperate regions, 150-220 kg/ha for winter types, 190-250 kg/ha for spring types. 28-35,000 seeds per kg." ^{[GF Winch]}
  • Seed spacing: "18 cm between rows." ^{[GF Winch]}
  • Depth: 4-5 cm.^{[GF Winch]}
  • Germination: "storage conditions and seed viability for oats are similar to wheat." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Soil: "of all the cereals, oats are second only to rye in their ability to survive in poor soils. Best in neutral silt and clay loam, though oats can grow on moderately acid soil where wheat or barley would fail. Waterlogged and high N soils can lead to lodging, and oats are more susceptible to this than the other cereals. Moderate tolerance of saline soil. Fertiliser requirements similar to wheat and barley, but less N is required." ^{[GF Winch]}
• Rotation: "oats should not be followed by another cereal, especially rye (or oats)." ^{[GF Winch]}

References

• [Antifungal] Antifungal Plants of Iran: An Insight into Ecology, Chemistry, and Molecular Biology, Mehdi Razzaghi-Abyaneh, Masoomeh Shams-Ghahfarokhi and Mahendra Rai, Antifungal Metabolites from Plants, 2013
• [E-flora]
  • Avena fatua, http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Avena%20fatua&redblue=Both&lifeform=6, Accessed April 9, 2015
• [Jepson] Bernard R. Baum, James P. Smith, Jr. & Dieter H. Wilken Annual. 2013. Avena, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Jepson eFlora, http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_IJM.pl?tid=15321, accessed on Aug 7 2014
• [PFAF.org] - Material obtained from Plants For A Future Database