Prunus Sp. - Cherry

Family: Rosaceae (Rose family)

Local Species;

• Prunus avium - Sweet cherry [E-flora]
  
• Prunus emarginata - Bitter cherry [TSFTK][PCBC][E-flora]
  
• Prunus laurocerasus - Cherry-laurel [E-flora]
  
• Prunus mahaleb - Mahaleb cherry [E-flora]
  
• Prunus spinosa - Sloe [E-flora]
  
• Prunus virginiana - Choke cherry [TSFTK][PCBC][E-flora]
  
• Prunus X pugetensis - Hybrid cherry [E-flora]

Prunus avium - Sweet Cherry

"This is an introduced small deciduous species of tree that is found infrequently in southern BC." [E-flora]

Habitat/Range: "IN places from New England west to Ohio and Kentucky, the cultivated Sweet Cherry, a native of Europe, has escaped to waste lands, thickets, and fence rows. Occasionally it is found in deep woods." [EWP] " Mesic to moist forest edges and fields in the lowland zone; infrequent in S BC; introduced from Eurasia.” [IFBC-E-flora]

General: "Tree, 5-25 m tall, mostly smooth throughout; bark reddish-brown, peeling in horizontal strips, with prominent horizontal lenticels. [IFBC-E-flora]

Edible Uses

• Fruit: "The cherries are either black or red and are often as large and palatable as those grown in the orchards." [EWP]

Medicinal Use
"WILD CHERRY (Prunus avium) There were genuine attempts at medicinal usage, though. “The distilled water of Cherries”, according to Gerard, “is good for those that are troubled with heate and inflammation in their stomackes, and prevaileth against the falling sicknesse given mixed with wine”. He also noted that “the gum of the Cherry tree taken with wine and water, is reported to helpe the stone …”, something on which Lupton had already reported. Cherry gum dissolved on wine was a remedy for coughs and colds (Earwood). Wild Cherry seems to maintain normal uric acid levels in people suffering from gout, and was much used for the purpose before synthetic treatment was available (Lewis & Elvin-Lewis)."[DPL Watts]

Propagation
"Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame[11, 200]. Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame[200]. Division of suckers in the dormant season[98]. They can be planted out direct into their permanent positions. Layering in spring."[PFAF]

Cultivation
"The main problems with growing this species against a wall are firstly that it is usually completely self-sterile and so there needs to be space for at least two different cultivars[186], secondly it is very vigorous and so is difficult to keep within bounds[219]. Most members of this genus are shallow-rooted and will produce suckers if the roots are damaged[238]. An excellent tree for insects[24] and the fruit is a good food source for birds. A bad companion for potatoes, making them more susceptible to potato blight[201], it also suppresses the growth of wheat[18]. It also grows badly with plum trees, its roots giving out an antagonistic secretion[201]. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus[200]." [PFAF]

Bitter Cherry - Prunus emarginata

General: "Shrub or small tree, 2-15 m tall, sometimes thicket-forming, smooth to densely hairy throughout; bark reddish-brown or grey, with horizontal lenticels." [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat & Range
"Moist open forests, thickets, rocky slopes and streambanks in the lowland, steppe and montane zones; common in southwestern BC, disjunct in WC BC, infrequent in S BC east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains; S to CA and E to MT, WY and AZ. [IFBC-E-flora]

Edible Uses

• Fruit: "Raw or cooked[229 ]. Intensely bitter[1, 11, 82, 99 ]. Some native North American Indian tribes saw the fruit as a great delicacy and an important food source, though others only ate it occasionally because of its bitter taste[257]. The fruit … contains one large seed[229]." [PFAF]
  
• Seed: "Raw or cooked. Do not eat the seed if it is too bitter - see the notes on toxicity." [PFAF]

Other Uses

• Wood: "close-grained, soft, brittle[82]. It is sometimes used for furniture because it takes a high polish[229]. An excellent fuel[99]."[PFAF]
  
• Bark: "The bark is used to ornament baskets and is also split into strips and used for making baskets that are watertight and resist decay[99, 257]. The bark is both strong and flexible…. The thin outer bark can be peeled off the tree in the same way as birch trees[226]. It has been used to make baskets, mats, ropes and as an ornament on bows, arrows etc[226, 257]. The bark can also be made into a string[257]. [PFAF] The bark of this tree peels off in long thin strips which, as well as being strong and watertight, can be polished to a red-varnished sheen. It was commonly used for imbrication in cedar bark baskets (Paul, 1968). It was one of the most desirable coverings for joints on all underwater implements used by the Island Salish because it was tough, fibrous, decay resistant, and made a smooth union (Barnett, 1955). Hence, it was used in making harpoons, spears, fishing lines, and nets, as well as for backing the hafts of bows and covering the joint between an arrowhead and its shaft (Harry, 1969). The wood was a good fuel, and was sometimes used for the hearth and drill in making friction fires." [Turner&Bell]
  
• "Wild cherry bark can be peeled off the tree in long fibrous strips. These were used to imbricate cedar bark baskets, to tie up harpoons, flounder spears, and arrows,…" [Turner&Bell]
  
• Dye: "A green dye can be obtained from the leaves [168]. A dark grey to green dye can be obtained from the fruit[168]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Uses

"Bitter cherry was employed medicinally by several native North American Indian tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints[257]. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism." [PFAF]

Bark

• "Bark is blood purifier, cardiac, laxative and tonic[257]. An infusion of the bark has been used in the treatment of tuberculosis and eczema[257]. A decoction of the root and inner bark has been taken daily as a treatment for heart troubles[257]. An infusion of the bark, combined with crab apple bark (Malus spp) has been used as a cure-all tonic in treating colds and various other ailments[257 ]. The bark, stuck on with resin, has been used as a dressing for wounds, swellings etc[226, 257]. [PFAF]
  
• Bark used “… to hold dressings on wounds (Boas, 1921, 1966; Alfred, 1969). In the last case, they were held to the skin with pitch." [Turner&Bell]
  
• "Ashes of the bark were smeared on the chest of a newborn baby to protect it from rashes and mouth sores (ot). cir. ). An extract made by pouring boiling water over the bark and allowing it to steep for a while was drunk for tuberculosis, eczema, or heart trouble. This solution had to be made fresh each time it was used or it would go sour. However, the bark could be dried and stored for winter use (Brown, 1969; Roberts, 1969)." [Turner&Bell]
• "The bark, often boiled with wild crabapple bark, was used by the Saanich and Cowichan as a cure-all tonic for colds and numerous other ailments (op. cit.). Saanich grandparents bathed their grandchildren in a concoction of wild cherry roots and gooseberry roots to make them intelligent and obedient (op. cit.)." [Turner&Bell]
• Wood: "An infusion of the rotten wood has been used as a contraceptive[257]." [PFAF]
• Roots: "The roots were rubbed on sandstone and held in the mouths of children with canker sores (Boas, 1966). They were also applied to the nipples of a mother to induce her infant to nurse (op. cir.). Wild cherry roots were split with a knife, soaked in boiling water, and the solution was drunk for discharge of blood (Roberts, 1969).” [Turner&Bell]
  

Cultivation

"Thrives in a well-drained moisture-retentive loamy soil[11, 200]. Prefers some lime in the soil but is likely to become chlorotic if too much lime is present[1]. Succeeds in sun or partial shade though it fruits better in a sunny position[11, 200]. This species is unable to tolerate much shade competition from other trees[229]. A fast-growing but short-lived species in the wild[229]. The flowers diffuse a soft honey scent[245]. Most members of this genus are shallow-rooted and will produce suckers if the roots are damaged[238]." [PFAF]

Propagation

"Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/Auguset in a frame[11, 200]. Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame[200]. Layering in spring."[PFAF]

Prunus laurocerasus - Cherry-laurel

"The cherry-laurel is a native of Asia Minor, but is cultivated in Europe, both for medicinal use and for the beauty of its shining evergreen foliage." [Remington USD20]

"Cherry laurel is a medium to tall evergreen ornamental shrub species in the Rose Family that is widely used in our region as a hedge species. It has escaped and naturalized in North America in British Columbia, Oregon, Washington and California (USDA 2011). In British Columbia, it is reported in the southwestern corner of the province. It is considered invasive here, and readily seeds outside of the garden. This is a spring flowering species that produces a raceme of white flowers." [E-flora]

"In their recent and entire state cherry-laurel leaves have scarcely any odor; but, when bruised, they emit the characteristic odor [that of hydrocyanic acid] of the plant in a high degree. Their taste is somewhat astringent and strongly bitter, with the flavor of the peach kernel." [Remington USD20]

General: "Medium to tall shrub, occasionally a small tree, 2-6 m tall; twigs green, smooth." [IFBC-E-flora]
Habitat/Range: “Mesic to moist open forests, forest edges, clearings and disturbed sites in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC; introduced from Eurasia.” [IFBC-E-flora]

Hazards: "Overdoses of Cherry Laurel water prepared from the drug can lead to fatal poisonings. Ingestion of the leathery leaves and the seeds is improbable; the fruit pulp is low in cyanogenic glycosides (yielding 5-20 mg HCN/lOO gm). The recommended antidotes include the injection of solutions of Dicobalt-EDTA or thiosulfates, or the administration of methemoglobin-forming agents, e.g., amyl nitrite, 4-dimethyl aminophenol. The inducement of vomiting or gastric lavage should be done in parallel fashion. Circulatory support and artificial respiration may also be required." [PDR] “...Overdoses can cause cyanide poisoning." [HMH Duke]

"It is mainly the leaves but also buds, bark and seeds which are poisonous due to the occurrence of cyanogenetic glycosides. The symptoms can include delayed nausea, vomiting and palpitation of the heart. In serious cases respiratory depression, unconsciousness and spasms occur." [Sandberg NR]

Food Use

Flavoring: "Cherry laurel oil (FFPA) is used as a flavor component in numerous food products, including alcoholic (liqueurs such as cordials, etc.) and nonalcoholic beverages, frozen dairy desserts, candy, and baked goods. Highest average maximum use level reported is 0.014% in candy." ^{[Leung ECNI]}

Medicinal Use

• Leaves
• "Leaves used in treating coughs, insomnia, stomach and intestinal spasms, vomiting, and other ailments; also reportedly used in cancers." ^{[Leung ECNI]}
• "The drug acts as a tonic for the stomach, an anti-irritant and a sedative." [PDR]
  
• Uses: "Unproven Uses: Cherry Laurel is used to treat coughs and the common cold." [PDR]
• "Homeopathic Uses: Cherry Laurel is used for dry coughs, whooping cough, cyanosis and spasms." [PDR]
  
• Mode of Administration: "The drug is available as a watery extract, an aromatic, a breathing stimulant and an antispasmodic." [PDR] Dosages (Cherry-Laurel) — 1.5–6 g cherry laurel water (MAD).[HMH Duke]
  

Other Notes

"CHERRY LAUREL (Prunus laurocerasus) ... it is highly poisonous. As early as 1731, Madden of Dublin drew the attention of the Royal Society to some cases of poisoning that had occurred by the use of a distilled water of the leaves. This water had been used in Ireland for flavouring puddings and creams, and also as an addition to brandy. This is actually hydrocyanic, that is, prussic acid! O P Brown recommended the leaves as “an excellent sedative”, and in fact a tincture made from the leaves is still in use in homeopathy as a sedative (Schauenberg & Paris)." [DPL Watts]

Pharmacology

Select Indications

Phytochemicals

Leaves: "Cyanogenic glycosides: prunasin (corresponding to 0.5- 2.5%, 50-21 0 mg HCN/100 gm)" [PDR]

HCN values - Cherry Laurel, Prunus laurocerasus: 1,200 ppm (leaf ); 340 ppm (seed) [Cheryll Williams] "He found the proportion of the acid [HCN]in the leaves greatest in July, and least in February." [Remington USD20]

Prulaurisin is obtained from Prunus laurocerasus.[HPEP]

Leaf
Essential oil
Content (fermentation), %: 0.05–0.5 [1, 2]
Composition,%: Benzaldehyde – 98.0; benzyl alcohol,
benzaldehyde cyanohydrin, cyanogen acid –
0.4–4.1 [1, 2] [LLCEOPS]

Seed
Essential oil
Content (fermentation), %: 1.0 [1] [LLCEOPS]

"The leaves contain variable amounts (usually ca. 1.5%) of prunasin (d-mandelonitrile glucoside), with the young and small leaves containing the highest concentrations. During isolation, prunasin is partially converted to its isomer sambunigrin (l-mandelonitrile glucoside), resulting in a racemic mixture of the two isomers known as prulaurasin (dl-mandelonitrile glucoside). Other constituents present in the leaves include 1% ursolic acid, wax, tannin, emulsin, and others (KARRER)." ^{[Leung ECNI]}

"The oil is obtained by steam distillation of the warmwatermacerated leaves. During maceration the enzyme prunase (or emulsin) hydrolyzes the cyanogenic glucoside present to yield benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid (HCN), which are volatile and distilled with steam. Most of the HCN is removed by neutralization and washing of the oil. Cherry laurel water is the water distillate adjusted to contain 0.1%HCN." ^{[Leung ECNI]}

"Cherry laurel oil (FFPA) is practically equivalent to pure benzaldehyde and has the pharmacological and toxicological properties of benzaldehyde" ^{[Leung ECNI]}

"One pound, avoirdupois, of the fresh leaves yields 40.5 grains of the oil. (Ph. Cb., 1855, 205.) The oil resembles that of bitter almonds, for which it is said to be sometimes sold in Europe, where it is employed to flavor liquors and various culinary preparations, but, as the glucoside of cherry-laurel leaves is decomposed more slowly than ordinary crystallized amygdalin, it is liable to hold hydrocyanic acid, and hence to be poisonous.... The fresh leaves are used to flavor milk, cream, etc., and more safely than the oil, though they also are poisonous, when too largely employed." [Remington USD20]

"...introducing labelled phenylalanine to young cherry laurel plants ie; Prunus laurocerasus, has proved that the amino acid acts as a precursor of Prunasin in young peach seedlings." [PCPB]

Propagation

"The seed can be rather slow, sometimes taking 18 months to germinate[113]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow them on in a greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter and plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame[11, 200]. Cuttings of mature wood, October in a sheltered north facing border outdoors[113]. Layering in spring."[PFAF]

Cultivation

"Requires a well-drained moisture retentive soil[1, 11]. Grows well in heavy clay soils. Thrives in a loamy soil, doing well on limestone[11]. Prefers some chalk in the soil but it is apt to become chlorotic if too much is present, growing badly on shallow chalk[98, 200]. Extremely tolerant of shade, it succeeds in the dense shade of trees with almost no direct light and in their drip line[197, 200], though it fruits better in a more sunny position[200]. A very ornamental plant, there are many named varieties[200]. The cultivar 'Otto Luyken' is a low growing narrow-leafed form that flowers in spring and autumn. The tiny flowers are powerfully fragrant[245] but have a rather offensive odour[182]. This is a matter of opinion, some people find the smell sweet and delightful[K]. A greedy plant, inhibiting the growth of nearby plants[11], it should be introduced with care since it often self-sows in woodlands and can prevent the successful regeneration of native trees by shading out the seedlings[208]. Most members of this genus are shallow-rooted and will produce suckers if the roots are damaged[238]. The flowers attract butterflies and moths[30]. This species is notably resistant to honey fungus[88, 200]. Subject to bacterial canker which can kill large branches[124]. Trim (preferably with secateurs) in spring or late summer[200]. Old plants can be cut back hard into the old wood in spring and will soon recover[200]." [PFAF]

Prunus Mahaleb - Mahaleb cherry

"This is an introduced deciduous species of cherry tree that is found in south-central BC." [E-flora]

Habitat/Range: "Mesic to moist fields and waste places in the steppe zone; rare in SC BC; introduced from Europe." [IFBC-E-flora]

General: "Shrub to small tree, to 10 m tall; branches thin, hard, hairy when young then smooth; twigs green." [IFBC-E-flora]

Food Use:

• Fruit: "The fruit is about 6mm in diameter and contains one large seed[200]. Seed - raw or cooked. The dried seed kernels are used as a flavouring in breads, sweet pastries, confectionery etc[177, 183]. They impart an intriguing flavour[183]. Do not eat the seed if it is too bitter - see the notes above on toxicity." [PFAF]

Other Use

• Dye: "A green dye can be obtained from the leaves[168]. A dark grey to green dye can be obtained from the fruit[168]." [PFAF]
  
• Rootstalk: "Can be used as a rootstock for the cultivated cherries[1, 11]." [PFAF]
  
• Wood - "hard, very heavy, polishes well. Used for turnery, ornamental items etc[46, 61]." [PFAF]

Medicinal Use

• Tonic: “The seed is tonic[240]. Although no specific mention has been seen for this species, all members of the genus contain amygdalin and prunasin, substances which break down in water to form hydrocyanic acid (cyanide or prussic acid). In small amounts this exceedingly poisonous compound stimulates respiration, improves digestion and gives a sense of well-being[238].” [PFAF]

Cultivation
“Thrives in a well-drained moisture-retentive loamy soil[11, 200], growing best in a poor soil[1, 11]. Prefers some lime in the soil but is likely to become chlorotic if too much lime is present[1]. Succeeds in sun or partial shade though it fruits better in a sunny position[11, 200].” [PFAF]

Propagation
“Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame[11, 200]. Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame[200]. Layering in spring.” [PFAF]

Prunus spinosa - Sloe

General: "Medium to tall shrub, 1-4 m tall, much-branched, very thorny with spine-tipped spur shoots, sometimes suckering to form dense thickets; twigs blackish, sometimes hairy when young." [IFBC-E-flora]

Habitat / Range: Dry to moist thickets, gullies and waste places in the lowland zone; rare in SW BC; introduced from Europe. [IFBC-E-flora]

Food Use

• Flavoring: Sloe gin is the best known use of the fruit, but they have been used in a mixture of various ingredients that was sold as choice old port! (Hulme). [DPL Watts]
  
• Tea: "The leaves have been used as an adulterant of tea... ." [DPL Watts]

Other Use

• Fishhooks: "The thorns have been used as fish-hooks – in fact they survived in Wales until fairly recent times. They were put in an oven for some days to harden the points, and were fitted to hand-lines or long-lines that were particularly effective for catching flatfish. The lugworm that was used as bait was threaded from the bottom upwards and over the point of the thorn (Jenkins)." [DPL Watts]
  
• Tobacco: "[Leaves] were also an Irish substitute for tobacco (Ô Súilleabháin)." [DPL Watts]
  
• Dye: "Sloes will give a slate-blue dye with no mordant, and sloe juice is indelible, as careless handling during the making of sloe gin will prove! Juice squeezed out of the unripe fruit was sold at one time under the trade name German Acacia, and used to mark linen – an ideal laundry marking, in fact." [DPL Watts]

Medicinal Use

Dosages (Sloe) — 2–4 g fruit (KOM; PH2); 1–2 g flower or fruit, or 1–2 tsp as a tea, to 2 ×/day (AHP); 2 tsp flower (= 2 g) in cold or hot tea (MAD). [HMH Duke]

Activities (Sloe) — Antipyretic (f; EFS); Astringent (1; EFS; PHR; PH2); Cardiotonic (f; MAD); Depurative (f; EFS; MAD); Diaphoretic (f; HHB); Diuretic (f; MAD; HHB; PHR; PH2); Emmenagogue (f; EFS); Hemostat (f; EFS); Laxative (f; EFS; HHB; PHR; PH2); Vermifuge (f; EFS; HHB; MAD). [HMH Duke]

Flowers:

• Phytochemicals: "Cyanogenic glycosides: amygdalin (traces, likely only in the fresh blossoms); Flavonoids: including quercitrin, rutin, and hyperoside"^[PDR]
  
• Unproven Uses: "Preparations of Sloe flower are used for common colds, diseases and ailments of the respiratory tract, as a laxative, for diarrhea, for prophylaxis and treatment of gastric spasms, flatulence, intestinal diseases and gastric insufficiency"^[PDR]
  
• Homeopathic Uses: "Prunus spinosa is used for cardiac insufficiency and 'nervous headaches'."^[PDR]
  
• Mode of Administration: "Sloe flower preparations are -available in various commercial compounded preparations."^[PDR]
• Preparation: "Tea: pour boiling water over 1 to 2 heaped teaspoons, stir occasionally for 5 to 1 0 minutes and strain."^[PDR]
  
• Daily Dosage: "Drink 1 to 2 cups during the day or 2 cups in the evening. (1 teaspoon corresponds approximately to 1 gm drug)"^[PDR]
  
• Storage: "Should be protected from light and moisture, at best not longer than 1 year."^[PDR]

Fruit

• Phytochemicals: Cyanogenic glycosides: amygdalin, only in the seeds Fruit acids; Monosaccharides/oligosaccharides; Tannins"^[PDR]
  
• Activities: Sloe fruit has an astringent effect."^[PDR]
  
• Approved by Commission E:
  • Inflammation of the mouth and pharynx"^[PDR]
  
• Use: Sloe fruit is used externally for inflammation of the oral and pharyngeal mucosa (as a gargle)^[PDR]
  
• Unproven Uses: In folk medicine the fruit juice is used as a gargle for mouth, throat, and gum inflammation. Syrup and wine are employed as a purgative or diuretic and as jam for a weak stomach."^[PDR]
  
• Mode of Administration: Sloe fruit is available as crude drug for infusions and other galenic preparations for mouth rinses."^[PDR]
  
• Daily Dosage: External use — 2 to 4 gm drug ^[PDR]

Folk Uses

• Warts: Getting rid of warts by rubbing a snail on them and then impaling it on a blackthorn used to be common practice; or, from East Anglia, you could rub the wart with a green sloe, and then throw the slow over your left shoulder (Glyde). [DPL Watts]
  
• Throat Aid: Wales they were used for a cough cure (Friend. 1883); so they were in the Highlands, too, for sloe jelly was reckoned the best cure for relaxed throat (Grant), while the juice of boiled sloes was an East Anglian gargle for a sore throat (V G Hatfield. 1994). Sucking a sloe is said to cure gumboils (Addison & Hillhouse). And a gypsy remedy for bronchitis involves peeling the bark, boiling it in a saucepan of water, and then allowing it to cool. Add sugar, and then drink it when needed (Page. 1978). In Sussex, the inner bark is scraped off and made into a tea to be taken for various ailments. Equally varied and unspecified are the disorders for which sloe wine used to be taken in Northamptonshire (Friend. 1883). [DPL Watts]
  
• Indigestion: Blackthorn leaves were used in Ireland as an indigestion remedy, or to cure “summer fever” (Ô Súilleabháin), while Thornton said that ague could be cured sometimes with the powdered bark. He also reckoned that an infusion of a handful of the flowers “is a safe and easy purge”, but the Welsh belief that if a person ate the first three blackthorn blossoms he saw, he would not have heartburn all through the year (Trevelyan), can only be classed as superstition, not even a charm. [DPL Watts]
• Sloes were used for fevers at one time in the Highlands, and the flowers as a laxative (Beith). Can that be feasible? Blackthorn thorns, in infusion, is an Irish cure for diarrhoea (Buckley). Tusser recommended the berries for veterinary use. [DPL Watts]

Cultivation
"Requires a well-drained moisture retentive soil[11]. Succeeds in all soils except very acid peats[186]. Succeeds in light shade but fruits better in a sunny position[11, 200]. Thrives in a loamy soil, doing well on limestone[11]. Prefers some chalk in the soil but apt to become chlorotic if too much is present[1]. Thrives on chalk according to another report[182]. Plants are very resistant to maritime exposure[186]. An important food plant for the caterpillars of several species of butterfly[30], especially the larvae of the brown and black hairstreak butterflies[186]. A good bee plant. Plants are shallow-rooted and of a suckering habit, they can form dense impenetrable thickets which are ideal for nesting birds, especially nightingales[186]. Flowers are often damaged by late frosts[186]. Plants regenerate quickly after cutting or after fast moving forest fires, producing suckers from below ground level[186]. This species is notably resistant to honey fungus[88, 200]." [PFAF]

Propagation
"Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame[11, 200]. Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame. Layering in spring. Division of suckers during the dormant season. They can be planted out direct into their permanent positions." [PFAF]

Prunus virginiana - Western Choke Cherry

Similar Species
"This shrub or small tree is most easily distinguished distinguished from bitter cherry by its flowers and fruits, which occur in elongate clusters of more than 10 (vs. 5-10 in Prunus emarginata; its fruits are usually darker, to purple or even black. It grows on forest edges and in clearings, from the Strait of Georgia-Puget Sound area south to California." [PCBC2004]

Habitat / Range
"Dry to mesic forest edges, open forests, thickets, bluffs, grassy rocky slopes, river terraces, gullies, draws and streambanks in grasslands, and clearings in the lowland and montane zones; common in S BC, especially east of the Coast-Cascade Mountains, infrequent northward; E to NF and S to NC, TX and CA." [IFBC-E-flora]

Ecological Indicator Information
"A shade-intolerant. submontane to subalpine. transcontinental North American deciduous shrub. Occurs in continental cool temperate and cool semiarid climates on moderately dry to fresh. nitrogen­rich (occasionally weakly alkaline) soils (Moder and Mull humus forms). Its occurrence increases with increasing temperature and continentality. and decreases with increasing precipitation and latitude. Occasional in immature broad­leaf forests on water-shedding sites on leeward Vancouver Island and in the coast -interior ecotone. A nitrophytic species characteristic of young-seral, continental forests." [IPBC][E-flora]

Hazards

• Cyanogenic Glycosides
  
• The leaves, bark, and seed kernels of choke cherry, as well as of other species of Prunus and Pyrus, contain cyanide-producing glycosides. Eating large quantities of the fresh cherries with their pits in can cause nausea and. vomiting, and can even be fatal in some circumstances. Cooking and drying seems to dispel most of glycosides and hence, the seed kernels in dried, mashed choke cherries are apparently not a problem. To be safe, however, it is best to discard the seeds before eating the fruit.[Turner, Kuhnlein]
  The seed can contain high concentrations of hydrogen cyanide, a poison that gives almonds their characteristic flavour. This toxin is readily detected by its bitter taste. Usually present in too small a quantity to do any harm, any very bitter seed or fruit should not be eaten[65]. In small quantities, hydrogen cyanide has been shown to stimulate respiration and improve digestion, it is also claimed to be of benefit in the treatment of cancer. In excess, however, it can cause respiratory failure and even death.[PFAF]
  Although no specific mention has been seen for this species, all members of the genus contain amygdalin and prunasin, substances which break down in water to form hydrocyanic acid (cyanide or prussic acid). In small amounts this exceedingly poisonous compound stimulates respiration, improves digestion and gives a sense of well-being[238]. [PFAF]. However the kernels are as poisonous as those of the rest of the genus, and children have been known to die after eating them (Tampion) – it is the cyanide content that causes the damage.[DPL Watts]

Edible Uses

• Berries
  
• "Before they are fully ripe, they are tart and astringent. However, especially after the first frost, they can be sweet and flavorful, and are among the most widely used fruits of Canadian Indigenous Peoples. Ripen in late summer or fall. Today choke cherries are used for juice, jelly and wine, and are often canned or frozen; some people still dry them." [Turner, Kuhnlein] The fruit lacks pectin. [EWP]
  
• "The fruits were very popular with the Indians who sometimes managed to eat them raw." [Harrington]
  
• "Raw or cooked[2, 55, 62, 159]. Very harsh, it is normally used in pies, jellies etc[155, 183]. Dark and juicy, it is sometimes edible raw when fully mature[82, 101]. The fruit can be dried and is then quite nice raw [85]." [PFAF].
  
• Preservation: "In British Columbia, two color forms—red and black—are commonly recognized; many people prefer the red ones. They dried them separately or mashed them, seeds and all, then placed them on racks to dry into thin cakes. The Okanagan-Colville also stored branches laden with choke cherries in a cool, dry place, then picked the cherries as required over the winter. The dried cherries were sometimes pounded together with salmon heads or tails, or salmon eggs, or were soaked in water, or boiled with salmon or meat." [Turner, Kuhnlein] Indians also dried the fruits whole and stored them for winter. [Harrington]
  
• Eaten fresh, but more commonly were cooked or dried for storage, with the pits still intact. They could also be stored fresh, in a cool, shady place, for several months. [Turner, Kuhnlein]
  
• Dried Cakes: “They could be soaked up in water when needed, mixed with flour, sugar and water, then used to make a sauce. We have tried this procedure and found the taste very good, except that the hulls of the seeds are not ground fine enough to be completely ignored in chewing. These pieces of hulls do not seem to bother the Indians…” [Harrington]
  
• Wine: "Chokecherries are famous for making Wine. We have several interesting recipes but the following one is a good one. The juice from fresh chokecherries can be obtained by mashing the fruit, draining off the juice, and by adding water and sugar to it a drink can be obtained that is unusual and refreshing .It is no wonder that the fruit of this plant has been so popular down through the years in spite of its astringent taste in its fresh condition." [Harrington]
  
• Seed: "Raw or cooked. Very nutritious, they are added to pemmican[183]. Do not eat the seed if it is too bitter - see the notes above on toxicity." [PFAF]
• Bark & Twigs: A tea substitute[161, 183]. [PFAF]. "The bark has even been used to make a kind of substitute for tea. This has not appealed to us since at least the leaves often contain poisonous amounts of prussic acid and have caused severe losses of livestock grazing upon them." [Harrington]
• Cooking Aid: "The green sticks were used as skewers to flavor meat while cooking." [Turner, Kuhnlein]

Other Uses

• Dye: "A green dye can be obtained from the leaves[168]. A green dye is obtained from the inner bark in spring[155]. A dark grey to green dye can be obtained from the fruit[168]. A purplish-red dye is obtained from the fruit[155]." [PFAF]
  
• Wood: "Close grained, moderately strong, hard, heavy, does not burn easily. The wood weighs about 36lb per cubic foot[227]. It is not valuable because of its small size and irregular shape, but is used for skewers etc[99, 149, 229]." [PFAF]
  
• Wildlife: "Choke cherries are said to be a favorite food of bears."[Turner, Kuhnlein]

Medicinal Uses

"Chokecherry was widely employed medicinally by many native North American Indian tribes who used it to treat a variety of complaints, valuing it especially for its astringency and beneficial effect upon the respiratory system[257]. It is little, if at all, used in modern herbalism." [PFAF]

• Fruit: "The dried and powdered fruits are used to stimulate the appetite, treat diarrhoea and bloody discharges of the bowels[222, 257]. The astringent unripened fruit has been used by children as a treatment for diarrhoea[257]. The fruit juice has been used as a treatment for sore throats[257]." [PFAF] "Choke cherries were prepared in many different ways. The Iroquois made soup from them, powdered, dried and mixed with dried meat flour. The Ojibwa mashed them and dried them in cakes. The Chipewyan and Woods Cree of Saskatchewan also dried them in cakes, and sometimes add them to pemmican, cooked meat and stew. The Woods Cree usually eat the fruits with grease, or sometimes fish eggs; they are said to cause constipation if eaten in quantity without grease. Choke cherries were a staple of the Blackfoot, who ate them fresh and dried, and often combined them with buffalo meat and fat to make pemmican. They prepared them for storage in various ways; some were greased then dried in the sun, then stored in fawnskin bags. Others were crushed on a stone and mixed with backfat for pemmican or added to soups, and stews." [Turner, Kuhnlein]
  
• Roots & Bark: "Are a blood tonic, astringent, pectoral, sedative, tonic and appetite stimulant[46, 61, 226]. An infusion has been used in the treatment of fevers, coughs and colds[257]. An infusion of the root bark has been used as a wash for burns, old sores and ulcers[257]. The inner bark is used externally in the treatment of wounds[222]. A decoction of the inner bark has been used as a treatment for laryngitis and stomach aches[257]. The bark is sometimes used as a flavouring agent in cough syrups[227]." [PFAF]
  
• Root: "The root, too, has been used – Blackfoot Indians chewed the dried root, which was then put into a wound to stop the bleeding (Johnston). Eating half a cupful of these cherries each day was reckoned to cure gout (Tyler)." [DPL Watts]
  
• Bark: "The Indians made a tea from this bark for diarrhoea (HH Smith. 1923), or any stomach ailment. Apparently, the bark was also used in the treatment of syphilis (Lloyd)." [DPL Watts]
  
• Tea: Beverage and medicinal teas made from both the bark and the fresh or dried cherries. [Turner, Kuhnlein]
  

Lore
"CHOKE CHERRY (Prunus virginiana) An American species that is cultivated in Mexico and central America. The cherry is small, black and bitter (hence Choke Cherry, presumably). Birds often get drunk eating them. However, the cherries are quite useful – country people infuse them in brandy as a flavouring (Lloyd), and native Americans used them as food; the Ojibwe used to pound them, stones and all, and dried them to store as food (Densmore)." [DPL Watts]

Actions
"The bark is slightly narcotic, making the user a little drowsy, and its sedative qualities gave it quite a reputation in America, in dyspepsia and tuberculosis (Lloyd)." [DPL Watts]

Propagation
"The seed can be rather slow, sometimes taking 18 months to germinate[113]. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle. Grow them on in a greenhouse or cold frame for their first winter and plant them out in late spring or early summer of the following year. Cuttings of half-ripe wood with a heel, July/August in a frame[11, 200]. Softwood cuttings from strongly growing plants in spring to early summer in a frame[200]. Layering in spring. Division of suckers during the dormant season. They can be planted out direct into their permanent positions." [PFAF]

Cultivation
"Requires a well-drained moisture retentive soil[11]. Requires a sunny position[11]. Thrives in a loamy soil, doing well on limestone[11]. Prefers some chalk in the soil but apt to become chlorotic if too much is present[1]. A fast-growing but short-lived tree in the wild[229], it has a tendency to form thickets of considerable extent from root sprouts[227]. Sometimes cultivated for its edible fruit, and sold in local markets[46], there are a number of named varieties some of which have much less astringent fruit[183]. The fruit is not very freely borne in Britain[11], though good crops are borne almost annually in the wild[227]. Most members of this genus are shallow-rooted and will produce suckers if the roots are damaged[238]. Plants in this genus are notably susceptible to honey fungus[200]." [PFAF]
" The plant forms thickets by means of suckers from its extensive root system and can be planted for erosion control[149]. It is a pioneer species of abandoned fields and cut-over lands[229]." [PFAF].

Prunus X pugetensis - Hybrid cherry

"This is a small deciduous species of cherry tree that is found in BC, Washington and Oregon (Jacobson and Zika 2007). It is a hybrid between Prunus avium and Prunus emarginata, and was first described for the Pacific Northwest by Arthur Lee Jacobson and Peter F. Zika. They describe it as follows: "It is intermediate in morphology, differing from P. avium in its pubescence, more slender leaves, smaller flowers, and peduncled inflorescences. It can be separated from P. emarginata by its broader leaves with coarser teeth, larger flowers with weakly notched petals, and occasional umbellate inflorescences." (Jacobson and Zika 2007)." [E-flora]

References

• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20avium&redblue=Both&lifeform=2 [Accessed: 11/25/2014 5:54:13 PM ]
  
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20laurocerasus&redblue=Both&lifeform=3 [Accessed: 11/25/2014 5:44:19 PM ] & [Accessed: 22/02/2018 7:10:32 PM ]
  
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus avium&redblue=Both&lifeform=2 [Accessed: 11/25/2014 5:23:41 PM ]
  
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20virginiana&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Feb 22, 2018
  
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20mahaleb&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Feb 22, 2018
  
• [E-flora] http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20spinosa&redblue=Both&lifeform=4 [Accessed: 11/25/2014 6:04:33 PM] & [Accessed: 24/02/2018 11:02:47 AM ]
  http://linnet.geog.ubc.ca/Atlas/Atlas.aspx?sciname=Prunus%20x%20pugetensis&redblue=Both&lifeform=2, Accessed Feb 25, 2018
  
• [Jepson2012] Joseph R. Rohrer, 2012. Prunus virginiana var. demissa, in Jepson Flora Project (eds.) Accessed Sept. 18, 2013
  
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+virginiana, Accessed Jan 12, 2015
  
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+emarginata, Accessed Jan 12, 2015
  
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+laurocerasus, Accessed Jan 12, 2015
  
• [PFAF]http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+avium, Accessed Jan 12, 2015
  
• [PFAF]https://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+mahaleb, Accessed Feb 22, 2018
  
• [PFAF] http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+spinosa, Accessed Jan 12, 2015